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<title>Two layer hypothesis</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Two layer hypothesis</span></span>

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<p>The <b>two layer hypothesis</b>, or <b>two layer model</b>, argues that Eastern and Southeastern Asia was initially occupied by hunter-gatherer groups considered to be <a href="Australo-Melanesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Australo-Melanesians">Australo-Papuans</a> before being replaced by Neolithic agriculturalists, who possessed East Asian cranial morphology. Cranial morphometrics and dental characteristics of human remains were cited as evidence for the hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_hypotheses">Early hypotheses</h2></div>

<p>The first fossilized skeletal remains and indication of early "Proto-Australian" Southeast Asian inhabitants surfaced in 1920 during an excavation by Dubois on the island of <a href="Java" title="Java">Java</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dubois_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dubois-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, a formal connection to mainland Southeast Asia and the suggestion of an initial population of Australomelanesoids was not suggested until 1952 by Koenigswald in his response to Hooijer,<sup id="cite_ref-koen_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who sharply criticized the attribution of 'big toothed' dental remains to early Australo-Melanesians.<sup id="cite_ref-hooijer_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hooijer-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The immigration hypothesis proposed by Koenigswald was formally termed the 'Two Layer' model by Jacob Teuku. In 1967, Teuku analyzed the cranial and dental proportions of 152 adult skeletal samples recovered from prehistoric sites in <a href="Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, the majority displaying robust jaws and teeth, prominent <a href="Glabella" title="Glabella">glabellae</a>, and slender, elongated limbs. Teuku argued these characteristics correspond to the Australo-Melanesian population proposed by Koenigswald that predated the East Asian immigrants of the Neolithic; also suggesting the initial inhabitants were likely forced south of Southeast Asia's mainland by the second wave of migrants, due to resource competition or conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-matsu2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matsu2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jacob_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacob-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_debates_and_controversies">Modern debates and controversies</h2></div>

<p>The existence of a distinct "Australo-Papuan race" has been discredited by modern day genetic research, which has found that groups historically classified as Australo-Papuan, such as <a href="Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a> and <a href="Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a>, are all part of a broader <a href="East_Eurasian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Eurasian">East Eurasian</a>, or Eastern non-African, metapopulation, which also includes modern East Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This East Eurasian metapopulation was found to have originated in <a href="Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a> at ~50,000 BC, following the settlement of the first anatomically modern humans in the region along the <a href="Southern_Dispersal" title="Southern Dispersal">Southern Dispersal</a> route, from which multiple populations have diverged. Within this East Eurasian cluster, the ancestors of current indigenous populations in Malaysia and Papuan-related groups first diverged around 50,000 to 33,000 years ago, while the ancestors of indigenous Malaysians and modern East Asians diverged around 40,000 to 15,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The main controversy concerning the two layer hypothesis is whether or not the evolutionary process truly involved the Australo-Melanesians. Archaeologists such as Matsumura suggest Southern Chinese people comprised the initial population of Southeast Asia, rather than Australo-Melanesians<sup id="cite_ref-matsu1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matsu1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while researchers such as Turner argue that prehistoric Southeast Asians did not mix with either group, and instead Northeast Asians originated from Southeast Asians.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-turner_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Though the early prehistoric Vietnamese and Malaysians both resembled the Australo-Melanesian samples the most, the <a href="M%C3%A1n_B%E1%BA%A1c" title="Mán Bạc">Mán Bạc</a> people had a greater resemblance to the <a href="Dong_Son_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Dong Son culture">Đông Sơn</a> samples dating back to the <a href="Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. Analyzing cranial and dental remains, Matsumura concluded based on chronological differences that the Mán Bạc people were immigrants affiliated with peoples near the <a href="Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a> region in Southern China.<sup id="cite_ref-matsu1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matsu1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular anthropologists have used classical genetic markers and <a href="Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mtDNA</a> to analyze the similarities between early Chinese and Southeast Asians. Such genetic markers suggest the genetic layout of Southern Chinese peoples is quite similar to that of Southeast Asians.

</p><p>Other researchers completely reject the two layer hypothesis. Using dental evidence, Turner’s <a href="Sinodonty_and_Sundadonty" title="Sinodonty and Sundadonty">Sundadont/Sinodont</a> hypothesis suggests the “Sundadont” trait seen in present-day Southeast Asians is a result of long-standing continuity. Turner created a cluster analysis of MMD values in order to test existing hypotheses of origins,<sup id="cite_ref-turner_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concluding that all Southeast Asians, <a href="Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesians</a>, <a href="Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a>, and Jomonese form their own branch and descend from a common ancestor. The Australians and Melanesians, however, are scattered over the African and European branch along with a side branch of <a href="Aboriginal_Tasmanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Tasmanian">Tasmanians</a> and <a href="Solomon_Islands#Early_history" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islanders</a>. Howell analyzed crania of major racial branches worldwide, and linked Australian and Melanesian cranial morphology most closely with African cranials. Howell discovered, however, that the size and features of present-day Asian cranial morphology differed significantly from that of Australians, Melanesians, and Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-turner_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turner-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A 2021 study concluded that East Asian-related ancestry was widespread in Southeast Asia far earlier than previously suggested. Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from <a href="South_Sulawesi" title="South Sulawesi">South Sulawesi</a>, had ancestry from both the Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from <a href="Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a> into <a href="Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000 BC, long before the expansion of <a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> and <a href="Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> groups.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Distinctive <a href="East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">East Asian</a>-related ancestry was recently found to have originated in <a href="Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a>, emerging from the broader East Eurasian metapopulation, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Eurasian ancestry into <a href="Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> could be estimated to ~25,000 BC (possibly also earlier since 50,000 BC). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 25,000 BC from <a href="Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a>. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of <a href="Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> and <a href="Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Larena_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larena-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian history</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early human migrations</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarlhoffDuliNägeleNur2021" class="citation journal cs1">Carlhoff, Selina; Duli, Akin; Nägele, Kathrin; Nur, Muhammad; Skov, Laurits; Sumantri, Iwan; Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Syahdar, Fardi Ali; McGahan, David P. (August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8387238">"Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>596</b> (7873): <span class="nowrap">543–</span>547. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.596..543C">2021Natur.596..543C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03823-6">10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10072%2F407535">10072/407535</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8387238">8387238</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34433944">34433944</a>. <q>The <a href="QpGraph" class="mw-redirect" title="QpGraph">qpGraph</a> analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Larena-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Larena_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLarenaSanchez-QuintoSjödinMcKenna2021" class="citation journal cs1">Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul; Guilay, Dennis; Reyes, Jennelyn (2021-03-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8020671">"Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>118</b> (13): e2026132118. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PNAS..11826132L">2021PNAS..11826132L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2026132118">10.1073/pnas.2026132118</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8020671">8020671</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33753512">33753512</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Antón, S. C. (2002). Evolutionary significance of cranial variation in Asian Homo erectus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 118(4), 301-323.</li>

<li>Bellwood, P. (2007). Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago. ANU E Press.</li>

<li>Hill, C., Soares, P., Mormina, M., Macaulay, V., Clarke, D., Blumbach, P. B., ... & Richards, M. (2007). A mitochondrial stratigraphy for island southeast Asia. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 80(1), 29-43.</li>

<li>Nguyen, V. (2005). The Da But culture: Evidence for cultural development in Vietnam during the middle Holocene. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 25, 89-94.</li>

<li>Oota, H., Kurosaki, K., Pookajorn, S., Ishida, T., & Ueda, S. (2001). "Genetic study of the Paleolithic and Neolithic Southeast Asians. Human biology", 73(2), 225-231.</li>

<li>Pookajorn, S., Sinsakul, S., & Chaimanee, Y. (1994). "Final report of excavations at Moh-Khiew Cave, Krabi Province; Sakai Cave, Trang Province and ethnoarchaeological research of hunter-gatherer group, so-called Mani or Sakai or Orang Asli at Trang Province (the Hoabinhian Research Project in Thailand)". Bangkok: Silpakorn University.</li>

<li>Storm, P. (2001). The evolution of humans in Australasia from an environmental perspective. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 171(3), 363-383.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://s1.zetaboards.com/anthroscape/topic/4742474/1/">Maps of early Austronesian settlement routes</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/kota.html">Kota Tampan tools and settlement of Southeast Asia</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological sites</a></li>

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<li><a href="Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorothy_Garrod" title="Dorothy Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li></ul>

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<li><a href="Survey_(archaeology)" title="Survey (archaeology)">Survey</a>

<ul><li><a href="Geophysical_survey_(archaeology)" title="Geophysical survey (archaeology)">geophysical survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_resistance_survey" title="Electrical resistance survey">electrical resistance survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Sondage" title="Sondage">Sondage</a></li></ul></li>

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<li><a href="Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">Lithic analysis</a></li>

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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Subfields_of_archaeology" title="Subfields of archaeology">Sub-disciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

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<li><a href="Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li>

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<li><a href="Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a></li>

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<li><a href="Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thematic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

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<li><a href="Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">Music</a></li>

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<ul><li>Sites

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<ul><li><a href="Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>

<li><a href="East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>

<li><a href="Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent<br>territories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-04" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Two_layer_hypothesis&oldid=1304146115">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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